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Under Roman rule, the people of Syria enjoyed peace and prosperity for nearly 200 years. Many high functioning cities emerged througout the region.


For a short time thereafter, the Roman territory was conquered by an Arab people at Palmyra, before being the Romans regained control.

Syrian people are those who share a common cultural and linguistic ancestry.

Culturally, Syrians derive from a blend of Semitic speaking people who occupied all of  the eastern Mediterranean, including all the countries along the Eastern Mediterranean shores, extending from Greec to Cyrenaica.

The word Semitic is derived from Shem, one of the three sons of Noah in the Book of Genesis.

Syrian Diaspora
Approximately 10 - 15 million Syrians have emigrated from Syria. now live outside of Syria.

In 2016, the United Nations identified 4.8 million refugees who have fled Syria, seeking asylum in other countries.  The UN was also able to account for an estimated 6 million internally displaced who relocated to less troubled parts of Syria.

As time went on, it became harder and harder for people to fina a safe place to settle because 3,000 to 6,000 refugees left Syria every day and refugee centers filled to capacity.

By 2014, displaced Syrians were joined by an influx of thousands of weary, displaced people from Iraq.

Turkey, with 2.7 Syrian refugees is the largest host.  Other high refugee centers are Lebanon and Jordan.

Largely due to the Syrian civil war, the UN reports that the total number of refugees worldwide exceeds 50 million.

Poorer countries have expressed conerns about the economic and social cost of absorbing large numbers of refugees.  Some countries began imposing restrictions on the number that could entered, and in some cases, murderous violence is used to restrict entry.

The Arabs granted their conquered populations freedom of worship, and many Syrians regarded them as liberators rather than conquerors.

This early Muslim period greatly favored life in Syria.  Under the Umayyad caliphs, Damascus became the capital and center of power of the Islamic Caliphate. And as an imperial capital, it was beautified by many palaces and mosques, and the city prospered.

Revolt
After about 100 years, prosperity began to decline as  Syria and Palestine became the locations of a number of revolts against the new Abbasid Dynasty, who founded their capital in Baghdad, Iraq.

Sunni (People of Tradition) and Shia (Party of Ali) Muslims are the two main branches of Islam that emerged after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, based upon opposing views of the right of succession for leadership of Islam.

After Prophet Muhammad's death disagreements broke out over who should succed him as leader of the Muslim community.  The Prophet Muhammad did not name a successor and none of his sons survived into adulthood to fulfill heredity succession.

The Split
Abu Bakr vs Ali
Sunni vs Shia
Umar, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who believed Ali ibn Abi Talib, cousin and son-in-law should be successor.

The conflict and violence between Sunni and Shia is more about political power, than religious differences -- they share common religious beliefs.  At the time of Muhammad's death, the Sunni held the most power and supported Abu Bakr as successor, and the Shia emerged in opposition.

• Caliph - person considered a political and religious successor to the prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim community
• Caliphate - an Islamic government led by a caliph 

Ottomans wereTurkish-speaking Muslims who amassed as strong and resilent empire that survived over 600 years.

In 1516, under Ottoman Sultan Selim I, the ever expanding empire conquered most of Syria, after defeating the Mamlukes at the Battle of Marj Dabiq near Aleppo.  And for over 400 years, Syria was part of the Ottomoa Empire, despite two brief captures by the Iranian Safvids under Shah Ismail I and Shah Abbas.

Because they shared the same faith and respected the Arabic language as the language of the Koran, they did not rule over the Syrians harshly.

Under the Ottomans the area of Damascus became a major center for thousands of Muslim pilgrims on hadj  -- the pilgrimage to Mecca recommended for all Muslims.

The Ottoman Turks reorganized Syria into one large province subdivided into sever districts.  In 1549, it was again reorganized into two provinces -- Damascus and Aleppo.  Within the next 50 years, the province of Raqqa was established in eastern Syria.

Arab troops led by Emir Feisal, and supported by British forces, capture Damascus and Aleppo, ending 400 years of Ottoman rule.

Arab Self-Rule
Paris Peace Conference
Following the defeat of Germany and the Ottoman Empire in World War I, Emir Feisal promoted Arab self-rule at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference at Versailles.

Fasil King of Syria
and King of Iraq
Emir Feisal of Iraq is proclaimed King of the Arab Kingdom of Syria (Greater Syria) in 1920.  In 1921 he also became King of Iraq (for 12 years). Fasil was a member of the Hashemite dynasty.

Pan-Arabism
Unity Between
Sunni and Shiite Muslims
Faisal fostered unity between Sunni and Shiite Muslims to encourage common loyalty and promote pan-Arabism in the goal of creating an Arab state that would include Iraq, Syria and the rest of the Fertile Crescent. While in power, Faisal tried to diversify his administration by including different ethnic and religious groups in offices.

San Remo Conference:
Europeans Meet to Divide
Conquered Ottoman Empire
The San Remo conference was an international meeting, held in Italy, after World War I to divide the Ottoman territories captured during the war.   The meeting was held from 19 to 26 April 1920, and attended by representatives of the four Principal Allied Powers of World War I: Britain, France, Italy, and Japan, as well as Greece and Belgium.

France Granted Syria
British Granted Palestine
During this meeting, Great Britain and France claimed administration of Syria and Mesopotamia.  And more importantly, international recognition was given to France for its claims in Syria.  As a result of the conference, Syria-Lebanon were placed under French mandate and Palestine under British control.

King Feisal of Arab Kingdom
of Syria Forced to Flee
Before French Occupation
With his sovereignty ignored, and his territories falling under French military and economic control, King Feisal fled his country just ahead of French occupation.

The French separated the population of Syria into three distinct, governing regions – the Alawi Muslim sect (regarded as heretics by Sunnis) on the coast, the Druze Muslims in the South , and the majority Sunni population in Lebanon.

In 1925 Sultan Pasha al-Atrash officially declared revolution against France and led a revolt initiated from the Druze Mountain and that eventually spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon.

Modern Weaponry Wins
the Day for the French
Al-Atrash won several early battles against the French, but in response, the French sent thousands of troops to Syria and Lebanon, from Morocco and Senegal, equipped with modern weapons, allowing the French to regain many cities.

Sultan al-Atrash
Sentenced to Death
The French sentenced Sultan al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in 1937 after the signing of the Franco-Syrian Treaty. He was met with a huge public reception.

Syrian nationalist present a draft constitution for Syria, which is immediately rejected by the French.

In agreeing to work toward Syrian independence, the French maintain military and economic control and dissolve two of the three artificial regions that they created on the coast and in the south, retaining Lebanon as a separate state.

Syrian nationalist, Shukri al-Kuwatli was elected as first president of Syria, and would go on to lead his country to full independence by 1946.

Shukri al-Kuwatli was a principal leader of the National Bloc, a Syrian political party that emerged to fight for Syrian independence while Syria was under French control.  The Block was led by notable conservatives, land owners, tradesmen, lawyers, etc -- including the 50 most rich and powerful families in Syria.

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National Bloc, a Syrian political party that emerged to fight for Syrian independence.  Highly instrumental in achieving Syria's independence, the Bloc was led by notable conservatives, land owners, tradesmen, lawyers, etc -- including the 50 most rich and powerful families in Syria.

Out of the Bloc emerged two opposing parties:

• National Party, based in Damascus
• People's Party, based in Aleppo. The People's Party was friendly to interests in Hasemite Jordan and Iraq, unlike the National party

The Arab Ba'ath Party was founded in Syria by Michel Aflaq, Salah al-Din al-Bitar, and Zaki al-Arsuzi, based upon an ideology mixing Arab nationalist, pan-Arabism, Arab socialist, and anti-imperialist interests.

Freedom for the Ba'ath Party means freedom from non-Arab control and interference. The party quickly established branches in other Arab countries, but only held power in Iraq and Syria.  

Arab Ba'ath Party and
Arab Socialist Party Merge
In 1952,  The Arab Ba'ath Party merged with the Arab Socialist Party, led by Akram al-Hawrani, to form the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. The newly formed party was a relative success, and became the second-largest party in the Syrian parliament in the 1954 election.

Egypt and Syria
Become Allies
This, coupled with the increasing strength of the Syrian Communist Party, led to the establishment of the United Arab Republic (UAR), a union of Egypt and Syria. 

The Syrians aligned themselves with the other local Arab states that wanted to destroy the state of Israel.  
The Syrian army entered norther Palestine, but was gradually driven back to the Golan Heights by the Israelis.

It was during this period that many Syrian Jews, who faced growing persecution, fled Syria as part of Jewish exodus from Arab countries.

Syria and Egypt for a short-lived political union, which ended when Syria seceded from the union in 1961.

The union was planned as the 1st step towards a larger pan-Arab state, and was created when a group of political and military leaders in Syria proposed a merger between the two states to Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser.

The military committee of the Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party planned a coup and seized power in Syria.

The Ba'ath Party was able to mobilize Syria's ethnic minorities, who were often underprivileged. The Alawits, the Druzes and the Isma'ilis, for instance, were ethnic groups with low social class who began to embrace a radical form of Arab nationalism, found in the ideology of the Ba'ath Party.

The growth of a new middle class in Syria fueled discontent and they became radicalized, as the traditional elite dominated the largest sectors of the economy and created the most wealth for themselves.

Salah Jadid was a Syrian general and political figure in the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party who stage a military coup against civilian Syrian leadership.  

Although he played in the background, he had many men allied to him in some of the top Syrian government and military posts.

After the coup, Hafez al-Assad was appointed defense minister.  Salah Jadid and Hafez al-Assad maintained highly public policy differences.  While Jadid retained allegiance of most of the civilian Ba'ath, Assad gradually asserted control over the military wing of the party.

Between June 5th and June 10th, 1967, Israel engaged in a war with Egypt, Jordan and Syria, at the end of which, Israel had gained control of the Golan Heights from Syria. 

In the attack, much of Syria's air force was destroyed.

In 1969, while Salad Jadid was still in power, Hafez al-Assad, Defense Minister, purged several Jadid loyalists.

In 1970, when Jadid sent Syrian-controlled Palestinian troops into Jordan to help the PLO, al-Assad took exception to the move.

Whe the Soviets sent an ambassador to mediate the power struggle between Jadid (whom they supported) and al-Assad, al-Assad was angered. 

Later in the year, Jadid attempted to fire al-Assad and his supporters. This in turn caused al-Assad to launch a coup against Jadid.

Jadid was arrested on November 13, 1970, and was confined to prison until his death in 1993.

Hafez al-Assad declared himself President of Syria in 1971.

Israel invaded Lebanon to occupy a strip of South Lebanon.  Funded by Iran to combat Israel's occupation, the group Hezbollah is formed and engages in guerilla warfare against Israel.

The military strength of Hezbollah continued to grow, forcing Israel to withdraw on May 24, 2000.

After Hafez al-Assad dies on June 10, 200, his son Bashar al-Assad is elected President of Syria.  At the time of his election, Sunni Muslims (including Sufis) made up 74% of the population, Shias 13%, and Syrian Kurds, an ethnic minority, 9%.  Syrian Kurds were targets of ethnic discrimination.

As his father, Bashar al-Assad is a Shia Muslim, but his wife, Asma, is a Sunni Muslim.

Early in his presidency, Bashar al-Assad began to accelerate the socioeconomic policies initiated by his father, policies when favored those connected to the government and the Sunni merchant class.

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ISIS named itself “ISIS” (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) in 2014 after it captured Mosul.  The Obama administration translated their self-assigned name as “ISIL” (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (aka Greater Syria).  At some point, ISIS determined that they were not limited by the geography of Iraq and Syria, so rebranded themselves as “IS” (Islamic State), to express their global footprint.  Finally, the French choose to refer to the group by the Arabic acronym, “Daesh”.

ISIS control large portions of territory in eastern Syria and western Iraq.  The territories controlled by ISIS and its allies have become known for instutionalized slavery, genocide, and ethnic cleansing of Christians, Alawites, and other Shiites and Yazidis.

ISIS is allied with other Islamic groups around the word, from Afghanistan to Nigeria, and have sympathizers as far away as Ottawa and Sydney.

The Ba'ath Party
Seeking Global Unification
of Arab People
In 1947, the nationalistic Arab Ba’ath Movement merged with the Arab Socialist Party to form the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party.  In 1966, the Ba’ath movement split in half, one Syrian-dominated and one Iraqi-dominated.


Both Saddam Hussein and Bashar al-Assad were rooted in the Ba'ath ideology of Pan-Arabism, or the global unification of all Arab people.

Bashar al-Assad. The al-Assad government was established to run essentially as a “personal government”, based upon and revolving around al-Assads, and loyalty to them, combined with acts of nepotism and ethnic favoritism.  Purist of Ba’ath and Arab nationalism generally opposed the al-Assad regime.

Saddam Hussein. Hussein believed the Ba’ath Party to be revolutionary, but pursued his own politically motivated variation of fundamental Ba’athism, primarily favoring Iraqi nationalism and an Iraq-centered Arab world. He claimed that the Arab nation did not have the class structure which existed in other nations and that class divisions were more along national lines between Arabs and non-Arabs rather than within the Arab community.

2002: Saddam Hussein
(and al-Assad) Attempt
Diplomacy with the U.S.
In December 2002, a representative of the head of Iraqi Intelligence, the General Tahir Jalil Habbush al-Tikriti, contacted former Central Intelligence Agency Counterterrorism Department head Vincent Cannistraro stating that Saddam "knew there was a campaign to link him to 11 September and prove he had weapons of mass destruction”. 

President Bush Rejects
Diplomatic Resolution
Vincent Cannistraro said that “the Iraqis were prepared to satisfy these concerns”, but that the offers made were all “killed” by the George W. Bush administration because they allowed Saddam Hussein to remain in power.  Saddam Hussein countered with an offer to go into exile, if allowed to keep $1 billion USD.

Iraqis Seek International
Support for its Plea of Diplomacy
Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak's national security advisor, Osama El-Baz, sent a message to the U.S. State Department that the Iraqis wanted to discuss the accusations that the country had weapons of mass destruction and ties with Al-Qaeda. Iraq also attempted to reach the U.S. through the Syrian, French, German, and Russian intelligence services.

It is reported the Syrian president Bashar al-Assad sought and mediator when he became frustrated by the difficulty in contacting the United States, after several attempts.

2003: Iraq Invaded
Weapons of Mass Destruction
ISIS is Born
In 2003, the combined forces of the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Poland invaded Iraq to take down the Pan-Arabism, nationalist and socialist government of the Ba’ath, headed by Saddam Hussein.  This coalition sent 160,000 troops into Iraq, with the U.S.A. sending about 130,000 of that number.  The coalition forces also received support Kurdish irregulars in Iraqi Kurdistan.


George W. Bush.  the coalition mission was "to disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction, to end Saddam Hussein's support for terrorism, and to free the Iraqi people.

Tony Blair. the trigger was Iraq's failure to take a "final opportunity" to disarm itself of alleged nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons that U.S. and British officials called an immediate and intolerable threat to world peace.

Internation Opposition to
the Invasion of Iraq
The invasion of Iraq was strongly opposed by some long-standing U.S. allies, including the governments of France, Germany, and New Zealand. Their leaders argued that there was no evidence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq and that invading the country was not justified.

According to the French academic Dominique Reynié, between 3 January and 12 April 2003, 36 million people across the globe took part in almost 3,000 protests against the Iraq war

Iraq Easy Pickin's for
U.S.-led Western Coalition
Saddam Hussein Flees

The combined forces and Kurdish rebels fought several battles against the Iraqi army to secure the norther part of the country.  And the main body of coalition forces continued to drive into the heart of Iraq, and were met with little resistance. Most of the Iraqi military was quickly defeated.  Baghdad was captured and military occupation of Iraq began. The Iraqi president, Saddam Hussein, and the central leadership of the country went into hiding.

ISIS Comes Into Being
After Western Coalition
Invasion and Establishment
of Provisional Iraqi Government
ISIS actually began in 1999, in Jordan, as Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad, a group pledging allegiance to al-Qaeda. 

They participated in the Iraqi insurgency following the 2003 invasion of Iraq by Western forces.  After the invasion the Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad became decentralized, having absorbed foreign fighters and a considerable number of Iraqis.  The group then became known as al-Qaeda in Iraq.  After several name changes and continued mergers with other groups, they became known as Islamic State (IS).

The Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad were a militant, Pan-Islamist group  -- a military movement rooted in Islam, termed Jihadism. 

Jihadism became to be used to identify various insurgent and terrorist movements.  Jihadist have identified their major opponents as being Jews, atheists, and Shiites.  They accuse other Muslims of heresy and justified their killing – this caused friction between them and Osama bin Laden. 

They said that the U.N.’s “gifted” Palestine “to the Jews  so [that they could] rape the land and humiliate our people’, and also targeted the U.N.’s support for American “oppressors of Iraq” and the “humiliation [of] our [Muslim] nation”.

Fighting Tactics
Jama’at’s tactics included suicide bombings, often using car bombs, kidnappings, planting explosive devices, attacks using rocket-propelled grenades, small arms and mortars, and beheading Iraqi and foreign hostages and video recordings of these acts on the internet.

The Western Coalition
Establishes Provisional Iraqi Government
After western nations established a provisional government in Iraq, an insurgency quickly emerged.  Dozens of insurgent attacks were attributed to the Jama’ats.  The group transitioned to become al-Qaida in Iraq, with Shiites being their primary target.

2004 U.S. Determined to
Obliterate ISIS Jihadist:
War Against Al-Qaeda
In September 2004, the U.S. began many airstrikes against al-Qaida in Iraq.  The following month, the group pledged allegiance to Osam bin Laden’s al-Qaeda network, and changed its name to Tanzim Qaidat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn, but were still popularly referred to as Al-Qaeda in Iraq.  They became the target of major military operations.

ISIS Does Not
Discriminate in its Jihad
Once mobilized, ISIS fought against the Syrian government, the Syrian opposition, civilians and journalists.  They believed themselves to have the might of right, and globally relevant in the fight for orthodox Islam.

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On September 6, 2007, months after both Israel and Syria engaged in building up troops on both sides of the Golan Height,  the Israeli Air Force sent fighters into Syrian airspace and began a bombing along the banks of the Euphrates River, without any provocation.

Within hours of the attack, Syria denounced Israel for invading its airspace.  Weeks following, Syrian President Bashar al-Assad issued a statement that Syria reserved the right to retaliate.

The Israeli Government 
Declines to Make a Statement
In the days following the bombing, American and European media were flooded with reports, based primarily on anonymoust government sources, claiming that Israel had destroyed a nuclear reactor being assembled in Syria, with the help of North Korea -- a violation of Syria's obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

The "Red Line" Crossed
With circumstantial evidence that Syria was constructing a building to hold a nuclear reactor, the Israelis said that the Syrians had crossed, what it termed, the "red line" on the path to building a bomb, and had to be stopped.

It was also reported that some of the Israeli intelligence had been shared in advance with the United States, which had raised no objection to the bombing.

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• Russia:  "the use of force against independent sovereign states under the disguise of combating terrorism is unacceptable
• Chinese:  "We oppose any deed that harms other countries' sovereignty and territorial integrity
• India: "actions resulting in the deaths of civilians are counterproductive."
• France:  expressed serious concern over the loss of Syrian civilian lives and called for restraint and respect for the territorial integrity of states
• Spain's foreign minister called for an end to such dangerous events and expressed condolences to Syria for the deaths of civilians
• North Korea condemned the raid, stating "The military attack is an unpardonable, inhuman criminal act...and state terrorism committed under the pretext of the anti-terrorism war” 
• Venezuela condemned the raid, calling it a barbaric act,  and President Hugo Chávez characterized the raid as illegal aggression
• Vietnam opposed the US unilateral military attack and said that the sovereignty and territorial integrity of nations must always be absolutely respected.
• Cuba expressed vigorous condemnation for the raid, characterizing it as a criminal action and a violation of international law
• Indian said that "The scourge of terrorism affects many nations across the world. While this must elicit decisive responses, when such actions result in the death of innocent civilians, they defeat the very objective of the intervention."
• Arab League denounced the raid and voiced its support to Syria to protect its sovereignty and people. AL Secretary General Amr Moussa underlined the League's support for Syria's right to defend its land and people and called for an investigation in the incident to hold those responsible into account.
• The Foreign Ministry of Qatar said that the raid contravened "the principles of international law and charters", and expressed its condolences for those killed and injured.
• Iran condemned the raid, stating that "We actually condemn any attack which violates national sovereignty of countries and leads to the killing of innocent people. Such invasions are unacceptable." 
• Facing increased internal pressure the Iraqi government unexpectedly criticized the expedition into the border village. A spokesman for the Iraqi, Ali al-Dabbagh, said: "The Iraqi government rejects US aircraft bombarding posts inside Syria. The constitution does not allow Iraq to be used as a staging ground to attack neighbouring countries."

On February 3, 2011, Syria Activist called for a "Day of Rage" against the government of Bashar al-Assad to be observed the following day, on February 4th.

It was a non-event.

On March 6, 2011, 15 young students from prominent families were arrested for writing anti-government graffiti that read "The people want the fall of the regime"

The Syrian government would go on to wage a campaign of arrests that captured over 10,000 people. Syrian law was changed to allow police and security forces to detain anyone for 8 days without warrant.  They were placed in inhuman, cramped rooms, and some were beaten or suffered electric shock in Syrian torture centers.

On March 15, 2011, nearly 10 days after the arrest and torture of 15 students, major unrest begins in Damascus and Aleppo.

The demonstrators began to clash with local police, and by the third day, security forces attacked protestors gathered at a mosque, after Friday prayers.  Water cannons and tear gas were intially used, then live fire.  Four of the protestors were killed.

A couple of days later, mobs burned down the Ba'ath Party headquarters and other public buildings.  Security forces responded immediately with live ammunition.  The two-day assault resulted in the death of 15 protestors.

By March 25th, 10 days after the initial uprising, mass protests spread nationwide.  And as demonstrators emerged after Friday prayers, at least 70 were killed by al-Assad security forces.

An estimated 6,000 soldiers backed by tanks and snipers opened fire on civilians in Daraa and two other locations.

Armed security agents conducted house-to-house sweeps, confiscating flour and food. Neighborhoods were sectioned off and checkpoints erected. Electricity, water and cellphone services were cut.

At least 11 people were killed and several others lay in the streets dead, or near death.

By May 5th, most of the protests had been suppressed and the military began pulling out, with some remaining to keepthe situtation under control.

As Bashar al-Assad continued to ignored international condemnation for his not pursuing peaceful resolution with anti-government protestors, the United States intensified political and economic preassure by imposing sanctions on al-Assad and six of his senior officals for human rights abuses, and the "continuing escalation of violence against the people of Syria including through attacks on protestors, arrests and harassment of protestors and political activists, and repression of democratic change".  With this sanction all assets held by the parties, in US jurisdiction would be frozen and any trade with them prohibited. 

The Obama administration hoped that by applying additional pressure, Mr. Assad, once viewed as a reformer, would be more considerate of negotiating a way to remain in power, rather than pushing foward with more "violence, intimidation and repression".

Until this time, American and European officials criticized the Syrian government but stopped short of sanctions, believing that satisfactory negotiation could be achieved.

In addition to al-Assad, the commander of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, Qassem Soleimani and his deputy were also sanctioned, as they were thought to be providing material support to the al-Assad government.

The sanctions are largely symbolic as al-Assad and his cohorts have few assets in the US and are unlikely to ever visit the country.

Note:  this follows an Executive Order (#13572) of April 29, 2011 imposing sanctions on Assad relatives and other Syrian officials, but not Assad himself.

Hundreds are left dead in the city of Hama, the center of anti-government protests, by Syrian security forces backed by tanks and snipers.

Corpses are scattered in the streets, while Hama hospitals are overwhelmed with casualties.

President Obma call the reports "horrifying".

President Barack Obama, the leaders of Britain, France and Germany and the European Union joined to demand that Syrian President Bashar Assad resign, saying his brutal suppression of his people has made him unfit to lead.

After months of attempted diplomacy, including several sanctions, the Obama administration made a gradual policy sift toward the al-Assad regime.

Pressure was exerted for the ouster of al-Assad after his months-long crackdown on dissent that killed more than 2,000 people, according to human rights activists.

China and Russia defend Assad's actions and oppose military action against Syria.  Both countries have armed the Assad regime.

Virtually everyone in the US, including Obama, wanted to support the opposition in Syria. But the question was whether the US should send Stinger missiles and rocket-propelled grenades, or offer moral support and humanitarian aid and stay out of the conflict.

United States Amabassador to Syria (2010 to 2014), Robert Ford, told administration officials years ago they should arm the rebels. If the US doesn't help, he said at the time, extremists will give them money and lure them into their organizations.

Mitt Romney Favors Arming Anti-Government Forces
Days after a massacre of at least 100 Syrian anti-government groups, United States GOP Presidential candidate, Mitt Romney, called for the U.S. and partner nations to “arm the opposition so they can defend themselves” against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. 

Mitt Romney went on to attack President Obama’s “lack of leadership”, blaming his lame foreign policy for the slaughter of tens of thousands by Bashar al-Assad.  

Others who supported arming the rebels included:

• CIA Director David Petraeus
• Secretary of State Hillary Clinton
• most of the foreign-policy establishment in Washington, both Democrat and Republican

Obama Favors Diplomacy
The Obama administration, through White House press secretary, Jay Carney, made a statement that signaled that it was not willing to engage the military in the Syrian conflict, or arming the anti-government forces, stating that it was  “not the right course” and would lead to more “chaos and carnage”.  Instead of involving the military, Obama is more inclined to issue diplomatic sanctions against Syria, including expelling Syrian diplomats from the U.S.

Another area of “attack” strongly considered by the Obama administration was to build a dialog with Russia, which has backed the Bashar al-Assad regime, but who had recently joined the U.N. Security Council in condemning Syria.   

President Obama was intent on keeping a diplomatic approach for as long as he was able.

Those who stood by Obama's diplomatic approach included:

• top members of the national security staff
• most of America

Obama Critics Call
for Military Air Strikes
Critics of Obama’s policies in Syria say that the calls for Assad to leave power aren’t going to be effective unless they are backed up with action, something the administration thus far has yet to provide.

The GOP 2008 presidential nominee, Senator John McCain, called for air strikes as part of an international campaign to give the opposition safe zones in Syria.  However, McCain, as many others of the GOP, do not believe the U.S. should commit ground troops, but that allied countries, such as Turkey, should provide military force where necessary.

While Syrian leadership offered assurances, through Foreign Ministry spokesman Jihad Makdissi, that they would never use chemical weapons against its own citizens, they threatened to use such weapons against foreign nations who attempted to intervene in their conflicts.

At this time, the United States had been working with allies in the region to develop contingency plans against worst-case scenarios, such as deployment of chemical weapons.

The planning included detailed arrangements for securing chemical arms with Special Operations troops in the event that they are seized by militants.

Under this climate, President Obama issued a warning that if there was any movement or use of chemical weapons by the Syrians, a red line would be crossed, and Syria would experience significant consequences.

Opposition to Use of Military Force Grows Among U.S. Senators of Both Parties
Following his August 31, 2013 announcement that he would seek authorization from Congress to use military airstrikes in Syria, President Barack Obama, and his administration, campaigned for over a week in a push for congressional approval. However, over that time, opposition only grew among among senators of both parties.

World Wide Protests
Against Attacking Syria
Senate Delays Planned Vote
The Senate was scheduled to vote on August 7, 2013 on a procedural motion to begin formal debate on the resolution, but the Senate Majority Leader, Harry Reid, announced on August 5, 2013 that the vote would be delayed in order to buy the president more time to make his case to senators and the public.

News of Russia Seeking
Deal to Dismantle Syrian
Chemical Weapons Program
The delay also came amid reports that Russia was seeking a deal with Syria to dismantle its chemical weapons program.

Dismantling Syrian Chemical Weapons Program Trumps
Need for Use of Military Force
Obama said in television interviews Monday such a deal could circumvent the need for U.S. military intervention

President Obama gave a speech in the White House Rose Garden on 31 August in which he announced that he would seek authorization from Congress before using American military forces to intervene in the Syrian civil war. Obama argued that it was necessary to intervene because the recent chemical weapons attack in Syria "risks making a mockery of the global prohibition on the use of chemicals weapons" and that it put U.S. regional allies that share a border with Syria in danger. He also said that, "while I believe I have the authority to carry out this military action without specific congressional authorization, I know that the country will be stronger if we take this course, and our actions will be even more effective".

However, Senate Majority Leader, Harry Reid, was forced to delay a procedural vote due to opposition among senators in both parties.

Five GOP Sens. Lamar Alexander of Tennessee, Roy Blunt of Missouri, Johnny Isakson of Georgia, Roger Wicker of Mississippi, and Mike Enzi of Wyoming, and Democratic Sen. Heidi Heitkamp of North Dakota,.announced Monday they would vote against a resolution authorizing the use of force.

The delay also came amid reports that Russia was seeking a deal with Syria to dismantle its chemical weapons program. Obama said in television interviews Monday such a deal could circumvent the need for U.S. military intervention.

The opposition underscored the uphill battle Obama faces on Capitol Hill to rally around his foreign policy agenda. 

In 2013, Secretary of State, John Kerry and his Russian counterpart, Sergei Lavrow, met in Geneva for three days, along with a delegation of technical experts from both countries, to draw up a blueprint for ensuring that Syria relinquished its chemical weapons.

As a result a Geneva agreement was struck to destroy Syrias stockpile of chemical weapons by mid-2014.

The agreement required Syria to provide a comprehensive list of its chemical weapons within a week and to allow inspectors into the country by November. Chemical weapons stockpiles were to be removed or destroyed by the middle of the next year, 2014.

President Obama States
President Bashar al-Assad
Held to International Standard
President Barack Obama said, "The international community expects the Assad regime to live up to its public commitments".  In addition, John Kerry stated, "The world will now wait for the Assad regime to honour its commitments... There is no room for anything other than full compliance."

Use of Force Outlawed
United Nations Security
Council Becomes Central
to Chemical Weapons Issue
As part of the agreement, Russia said that it would not allow the use of force to be considered, even in the event that Syria failed to properly comply with the conditions.

John Kerry said any violations would result in "measures" from the UN security council; Lavrov said violations would have to be sent to the security council from the board of the Chemical Weapons Convention before sanctions, short of the use of force, would be considered.

Obama Withdraws Intent
of Military Strike Against Syria
Additionally, the White House announced that with the agreement, it would not seek authorization for military force from Congress.

In his reluctance to deploy U.S. combat troops to fight ISIS, President Obama signed legislation, as part of a larger bill that funds the government through December 11th, to arm and train Syrian rebels for the fight.

2017 U.S. Defense
Spending Signed into Law
On December 23, 2016, outgoing President Barack Obama passed the 55th consecutive National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA).  The NDAA is a United States purposed federal bill which specifies the budget and expenditures of the United States Department of Defense (DOD) for any given year.  With his signing of the NDAA for Fiscal Year 2017, the bill became law, authorizing the DOD to spend $618.7 billion in the 2017 Fiscal Year.

The 2017 NDAA also authorized the Countering Information Warfare Act of 2016 to counter the spread of Russian propaganda of biased information.


China Objects to U.S. Defense Bill
Immediately after Obama signed the NDAA bill into law, China lodged a protest against the bill, citing that it included a plan to conduct high-level military exchanges with self-ruled Taiwan. 


Russia Objects to U.S. Defense Bill
In the day following China’s objections, Russia joined the global opposition to the US defense policy because of the easing of restrictions on arming Syrian rebels, stating that any delivery of shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missiles would directly threaten Russian forces in Syria. 

For over a year, the Russian government has led a campaign of air strikes in Syria to help President Bashar al-Assad and his forces retake territory lost to rebels.  And the Russian government said that the U.S. participating in supplying rebel forces with weapons, particularly shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missiles was a direct threat to Russian forces in Syria.

However, State Department spokesman, Mark Toner, dismissed Russian charges, saying that the administration remains opposed to providing portable anti-aircraft missles (MANPADS) to Syrian opposition groups.